Before Christophorus

The strong do what they can, and the weak suffer what they must."

"The strong do what they can, and the weak suffer what they must." Thucydides' History of the Peloponnesian War (416 BC)

I originally intended this blog as a Part 2 of February's Gold, Glory and God blog, but the more digging I did, the more interested I became in the events that led up to Columbus's voyage to the New World. All I could recollect was the grade-school mythologized Columbus, the bronze statues, a federal holiday--what a hero!

What was true in Columbus's time remains true to this day: the history of humankind has always been marked by never-ending cycles of conquest, oppression, and revolt. We simply can't seem to get along. While I remain optimistic about our collective ability to solve our most vexing scientific, ecological, and environmental challenges, I don't believe that we, as a species, are capable of coexisting — our religious, social, and political philosophies were colliding long before Columbus entered the world in Genoa sometime between August and October, 1451.

From the 2nd Century BC until the start of the 5th Century, the Roman Empire ruled most of the Iberian Peninsula, Hispania.

From History of Roman Spain, "The origin of the word Hispania is a subject of debate among historians. One of the most widely accepted theories suggests it derives from the Phoenician I-shepan-im, which translates as 'land of rabbits,' due to the abundance of these animals on the peninsula.

This name was adopted by the Romans when they began to interact with and conquer the territory, although the term may have undergone adaptations and modifications over time.

Another theory links the name Hispania to Hispalis, an ancient name for the city of Seville, which could also suggest a connection to the region's geographical surroundings."

During the first two hundred years (a.k.a conquest, subjugation), Roman rule was met with tribal resistance. Resistance was met with brutal, scorched-earth tactics, massacres, and slavery. Here are a few of the more notable conflicts.

Conflict	Dates	Key Event
Battle of Ilipa	206 BC	Scipio Africanus decisively defeated the Carthaginians, ending Punic rule in Iberia.
Iberian Revolt	197–195 BC	A massive uprising against Roman taxation; suppressed by Cato the Elder.
Lusitanian War	155–139 BC	Viriathus used guerrilla tactics to defeat multiple Roman armies until he was assassinated by bribed traitors.
Siege of Numantia	134–133 BC	The symbol of Spanish resistance. After a long siege, the inhabitants burned the city and committed mass suicide rather than surrender to Scipio Aemilianus.
Sertorian War	82–72 BC	A Roman civil war fought on Spanish soil, where the rebel Roman general Sertorius allied with local tribes.
Cantabrian Wars	29–19 BC	The final conquest. Emperor Augustus personally led campaigns to finally pacify the northern mountains.

This was followed by 300 years of the Middle Phase (Golden Age) (19 BC – 284 AD). In 74 AD, Emperor Vespasian granted "Latin Rights" to the entire population, and the region transitioned from a military zone to an economic center. Roman law and the concept of the State led to the organization of Hispania into provinces. Latin became the universal tongue, and Christianity spread.

Urbanization: The Romans created a network of roadways connecting Cadiz, Cartagena, Córdoba, León, Mérida, Sevilla, and Zaragoza. These roadways followed a similar pattern: a main road, Cardo (North to South), and a Decumanus (East to West), both roads converging at the Forum, home to government buildings, temples, baths, and markets.

Unfortunately, all empires seem to possess a built-in expiration date. It is certainly quite remarkable that the Roman Empire held sway over much of the Iberian Peninsula for 600 years.

Unfortunately, I have run out of time; more to follow in a future blog.

One last note, as our nation approaches its 250th anniversary, are you hopeful or skeptical concerning the country's chances of surviving another 250 years?

Paz